ZABANPAZHUHI (Journal of Language Research)

Current Issue

By Issue

By Author

Zabanpazhuhi

Author Index

Keyword Index

News

Journal Metrics

Publication Ethics

Editorial Board

Aims and Scope

Indexing and Abstracting

FAQ

Related Links

About Journal

Peer Review Process

Executive staff

Subject Areas

Guide for Authors

Editing English articles

Conflict of interest of the author

Commitment

Publons Registration Guide

Reviewers Journal in 1999

Reviewers 2020

List of 2021 Reviewers2021

List of 2021 Reviewers 2022

Reviewers Journal 2023

Comparing Critical Thinking and Autonomy Instruction in Speaking Classes

Document Type : Research

Authors

1 Associate Professor Islamic Azad University at Central Tehran

2 Islamic Azad University at Central Tehran

Abstract

The present study was an attempt to compare the effect of teaching critical thinking and autonomy techniques on EFL learners’ speaking skill. There is of course ample research on critical thinking and autonomy in the ELT classroom. Qamar (2016) showed that autonomy teaching had a significant effect on EFL learners’ speaking while Karakoc (2016) demonstrated that critical thinking is no doubt necessary in language learning. Mall-Amiri and Sheikhy (2014) concluded that there was no significant difference between the impact of autonomy and critical thinking on EFL learners’ writing achievement. In another research, Vahdani and Tarighat (2014) found that critical thinking had a significantly positive impact on the speaking proficiency of Iranian female adult EFL learners. This aligns with the findings of a similar study conducted by Malmir and Shoorcheh (2012) in which they concluded that critical thinker is a better language learner. To the best knowledge of the researchers, there is no study comparing the effect of using critical thinking and autonomy improvement strategies on EFL learners’ speaking; hence, this research was conducted with the aforesaid purpose in mind to fill the existing gap in the literature.
The present study set out to respond to the following research question:
• Is there any significant difference between teaching critical thinking and autonomy on EFL learners’ speaking?
Initially, the researchers piloted the sample PET and following item analysis, the modified version of the test was administered to 100 students through which 60 whose scores fell within one standard deviation above and below the mean were chosen as the main participants. Next, the 64 participants were randomly divided into two experimental groups of 32 in each: one as the autonomy group and the other as the critical thinking group.
Once the two groups were formed, a statistical test was run on the participants’ scores on the speaking part of the sample PET to see if the two groups were homogeneous regarding their speaking ability prior to the treatment. The classes of the two groups were hold two days a week for a total period of seven weeks (14 sessions each lasting 120 minutes) and they took the same midterm test on the seventh session and the final test on the 14th session.
Both groups were taught by the same teacher using the same materials. In one of these two experimental groups, the researcher used autonomy techniques during the course as treatment while in the other group, he taught the course using critical thinking techniques as the treatment.
The design of this study was quasi-experimental posttest-only and comparison group. In this study, the independent variable was the type of instruction with two modes of practicing critical thinking and autonomy and the dependent variable was the learners’ speaking ability. The proficiency level of the participants and their age were the control variables of this study while the unequal number of males and females was the intervening variable.
A series of descriptive and inferential statistics were employed in this research. For the homogenization process and speaking posttest, descriptive statistics was applied. The mean and standard deviation of the raw scores were calculated. The reliability of the sample PET was estimated through the Cronbach alpha formula and the Pearson Product Moment was used to estimate the inter-rater reliability between the raters for the writing and speaking sections.
Ultimately, an independent samples t-test was conducted in order to test the hypothesis. All prerequisites for running parametric tests were also put in place beforehand.
Following the treatment, the results of the independent samples t-test conducted on the posttest scores (t = 1.735, p = 0.008< 0.05) indicated that there was a significant difference between the mean scores of the two groups at the posttest with the critical thinking group who gained a higher mean score on the posttest compared to the autonomy group outperforming the latter and thus benefiting more in terms of improving their speaking.
Following the rejection of the null hypothesis, the researchers were interested to know how much of the obtained difference could be explained by the independent variable. To determine the strength of the findings of the research, that is, to evaluate the stability of the research findings across samples, effect size was also estimated to be 0.82. According to Cohen (1988), this is a strong effect size. Therefore, the findings of the study could be strongly generalized.
The result of the data analysis revealed that the critical thinking class enjoyed a far better performance in L2 speaking than the autonomy class. The present finding is in line with that of a good number of previous studies (discussed below) focusing on the effects of critical thinking and autonomy on L2 speaking among EFL learners.
This study has certain pedagogical implications in favor of the application of critical thinking instruction in the ELT classroom.

Keywords

References
Bagheri, M., & Aeen, L. (2011). The impact of practicing autonomy on the writing proficiency of Iranian intermediate EFL learners. Pan-Pacific Association of Applied Linguistics, 15(1), 1-13.
Balcikanli, C. (2010). Learner autonomy in language learning: Student teachers’ beliefs. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 35(1), 90-103.
Basturkmen, H. (2002). Learner observation of and reflection on spoken discourse: An approach for teaching academic speaking. TESOL Journal, 11(2), 26-30.
Benson, P. (2001). Teaching and researching autonomy in language learning. London: Longman.
Beyer, B. K. (1995). Critical thinking. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation.
Boonkit, K. (2010). Enhancing the development of speaking skills for non-native speakers of English. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2, 1305-1309.
Bozorgian, H. (2012). The relationship between listening and other language skills in the International English Language Testing System. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 2(4), 657-663.
Brown, H. D. (2007). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language pedagogy (4th ed.). New York: Longman.
Burns, A., & Joyce, H. (1997). Focus on speaking. Sydney: National Centre for English Language Teaching and Research.
Bygate, M. (1998). Theoretical perspectives on speaking. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 18(1), 20-42.
Celce-Murcia, M., & Olshtain, E. (2000). Discourse and context
in language teaching: A guide for language teacher. New York: Cambridge
University Press.
Chaffee, J. (2009). Thinking critically. Journal of Marketing Education, 27(3), 264-276.
Chomsky, N. (1972). Language and mind. New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Jovanovitch.
Cohen, E. D. (2010). Critical thinking. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Hillsdale, NJ: LEA.
Dabaghmanesh, T., Zamanian, M., & Bagheri, M. S. (2013). The effect of cooperative learning approach on Iranian EFL students’ achievement among different majors in general English course. International Journal of Linguistics, 5(6), 1-11.
Dafei, D. (2007). An exploration of the relationship between learner autonomy and English proficiency. Asian EFL Journal, 24, 1-23.
Dam, L. (1995). Learner autonomy 3: From theory to practice. Dublin: Authentik.
Faccione, P. A. (1990). Critical thinking: A statement of expert consensus for purposes of educational assessment and instruction. Millbrae, CA: California Academic Press.
Fahim, M., & Sa’eepour, M. (2011). The impact of teaching critical thinking skills on reading comprehension of Iranian EFL learners. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 2(4), 867-874.
Fahim, M., & Sheikhy, R. (2011). Critical thinking ability and autonomy of Iranian EFL learners. American Journal of Scientific Research, 29(1), 59-72.
Farzaneh, N., & Nejadansari, D. (2014). Students’ attitude towards using cooperative learning for teaching reading comprehension. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 4(2), 287-292.
Gan, Z. (2008). Extroversion and group oral performance: A mixed quantitative and discourse analysis approach. The Hong Kong Institute of Education, 23(3), 24-42.
Gebhard, J. G. (2006). Teaching English as a foreign or second language: A self-development and methodology guide. Ann Arber, MI: University of Michigan Press.
Glaser, E. M. (1941). An experiment in the development of critical thinking. New York: Bureau of Publications of Columbia University.
Goh, C. C. M., & Burns, A. (2012). Teaching speaking: A holistic approach. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Gorjian, B., Pazhakh, A., & Parang, K. (2012). An investigation on the effect of critical thinking instructions on Iranian EFL learners’ descriptive writing: A case of gender study. Advances in Asian Social Science, 1(1), 114-118.
Halpern, D. F. (1996). Thought and knowledge: An introduction to critical thinking (3rd ed.). New Jersey, NJ: Mahwa.
Harmer, J. (2007). The practice of English language teaching (3rd ed.). London: Longman.
Hedge, T. (2008). Teaching and learning in the language classroom. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hinkle, E. (2006). Current perspectives on teaching the four skills. TESOL Quarterly, 40(1), 63-94.
Holec, H. (1981). Autonomy and foreign language learning. Oxford: Pergamon.
Hosseini, E., Bakhshipour Khodaei, F., Sarfallah, S., & Dolatabadi, H. (2012). Exploring the relationship between critical thinking, reading comprehension and reading strategies of English university students. World Applied Sciences Journal, 17(10), 1356-1364.
Jacob, E., Rottenberg, L., Patrick, S., & Wheeler, E. (1996). Cooperative learning: Context and opportunities for acquiring academic English. TESOL Quarterly, 30(2), 253-280.
John, E. B., & Meera, K. P. (2014). Effect of cooperative learning strategy on the creative thinking skills of secondary school students of Kozhikode District. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 19(11), 70-74.
Kakavand, M. (2013). The relationship between Iranian Intermediate EFL learners’ listening comprehension ability and their critical thinking skills. Journal of Teaching English Language Studies, 1(4), 38-61.
Kalantari Khandani, E., Hasan Farrokhi, M., & Mousa Ghonchepour, M. (2020). A Critical Discourse Analysis of Trump’s tweets based on Van Dijk Model. Zabanpazhuhi, 12(34), 131-156 [In Persian].
Karimi, L., & Veisi, F. (2016). The impact of teaching critical thinking skills on reading comprehension of Iranian intermediate EFL learners. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 6(9), 1869-1876.
Kealey, B. T., Holland, J., & Watson. M. (2005). Preliminary evidence on the association between critical thinking and performance in principles of accounting. Issues in Accounting Education, 20(1), 33-49.
Khabiri, M., & Firooz, M.(2012). The comparative effect of practicing cooperative learning and critical thinking on EFL learners’ writing. Issues in Language Teaching, 1(2), 371-394.
Khabiri, M., & Lavasani, M. (2012). A collaborative approach to autonomy: Does it improve EFL learners’ oral proficiency? World Applied Sciences Journal, 20(9), 1293-1299.
Kumaravadivelu, B. (2003). Beyond methods: Macro strategies for language teaching. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Latham-Koeing, C., & Oxendon, P. (2014). American file 3. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Levelt, W. M. (1995). Speaking: From intention to articulation. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Lipman, M. (2003). Thinking in education. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Little, D. (1991). Learner autonomy 1: Definitions, issues and problems. Dublin: Authentik.
Lock, R. H., Swanson, E. A., & Howerton, D. (2007). Influence vocabulary acquisition for English language learners. Intervention in School and Clinic, 42(5), 290-294.
Lunenburg, F. C. (2011). Critical thinking and constructivism techniques for improving student achievement. National Forum of Teacher Education Journal, 21(3), 1-9.
Mall-Amiri, B., & Sheikhy, F. (2014). The comparative impact of autonomy and critical thinking on EFL learners’ writing achievement. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 4(5), 903-916.
Malmir, A., & Shoorcheh, S. (2012). An investigation of the impact of teaching critical thinking on the Iranian EFL learners’ speaking skill. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 3(4), 608-617.
Marashi, H., & Jodeiri, S. (2006). On the relationship between the critical thinking ability of Iranian intermediate EFL learners and their writing performance. Proceedings of the First Language and Linguistics Seminar of Islamic Azad University at Central Tehran, 175-192.
Marashi, H., & Khatami, H. (2017). Using cooperative learning to boost creativity and motivation in language learning. Journal of Language and Translation, 7(1), 43-58.
Marashi, H., & Noochirwani Tehran, S. (2011). The comparative impact of content-based and task-based teaching in a critical thinking setting on EFL learners’ reading comprehension. Journal of English Studies, 1(4), 27-40.
Marashi, H., & Zargari, M. (2017). Mixing explicit grammar instruction with TBLT to improve autonomy and writing. Iranian EFL Journal, 13(2), 78-100.
Mason, M. (2010). Critical thinking and learning. New York: Wiley.
McGrath, I. (2000). Teacher autonomy. In B. Sinclair, I. McGrath, & T. Lamb (Eds.) Learner autonomy, teacher autonomy: Future directions (pp. 100-110). London: Longman.
Mckay, T. (2000). Reasons, explanations, and decisions: Guidelines for critical thinking. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Mishan, F. (2005). Designing authenticity into language learning. Bristol, UK: Intellect.
Moore, B. N., & Parker, R. (1986). Critical thinking: Evaluating claims and arguments in everyday life. Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield.
Nikoopour, J., Amini Farsani, M., & Nasiri, M. (2011). On the relationship between critical thinking and language learning strategies among Iranian EFL learners. Journal of Technology and Education, 5(3), 195-200.
Ning, H. (2013). The impact of cooperative learning on English as a foreign language tertiary learners’ social skills. Social Behavior and Personality, 41(4), 557-568.
Nour Mohammadi, E., & Zare, Z. (2015). The relationship between critical thinking ability and listening comprehension ability of Iranian EFL learners. International Journal of Research Studies in Language Learning, 4(3), 47-59.
Nunan, D. (1997). Designing and adapting materials to encourage learner autonomy. In P. Benson & P. Voller (Eds.) Autonomy and independence in language learning (pp. 192-203). Harlow, UK: Longman.
Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2004). The nature and functions of critical and creative thinking. Dillon Beach, CA: The Foundation for Critical Thinking.
Pithers, R. T., & Soden, R. (2000). Critical thinking in education: A review. Educational Research, 42(3), 237-249.
Qamar, M. B. (2016). The impact of learner’s autonomy on teaching oral skills (speaking skills) in an EFL classroom. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 7(2), 293-298.
Rfaner, S. (2006). Enhancing thinking skills in the classroom. Humanity and Social Sciences Journal, 1(1), 28-36.
Richards, J. C. (2008). Teaching listening and speaking: From theory to practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Richards, J. C. (2015). Key issues in language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Saffari, S., & Tabatabaei, O. (2016). Relationship between autonomy and listening comprehension ability among Iranian EFL learners. International Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Research, 4(13), 33-46.
Salehi, H., Ebrahimi, M., Sattar, S., & Shojaee, M. (2015). Relationship between EFL learners’ autonomy and speaking strategies they use in conversation classes. Advances in Language and Literacy Studies, 6(2), 37-43.
Sezer, R. (2008). Integration of critical thinking skills into elementary school teacher. Education, 128(3), 349-363.
Shangarffam, N., & Mamipour, M. (2011). The impact of teaching critical thinking on Intermediate EFL learners’ writing skill. American Journal of Scientific Research, 40, 119-125.
Shumin, K. (1997). Developing adult EFL students’ speaking abilities. English Teaching Forum, 35(3), 8-14.
Spolsky, B. (2018). The Cambridge handbook of language policy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Stevens, R. J. (2003). Student team reading and writing: A cooperative learning approach to middle school literacy instruction. Education Research Evaluation, 9(2), 137-160.
Tittle, P. (2010). Critical thinking: An appeal to reason. New York: Taylor & Francis.
Vahdani Sanavi, R., & Tarighat, S. (2014). Critical thinking and speaking proficiency: A mixed-method study. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 4(1), 79-87.
Vaughn, L. (2009). The power of critical thinking: Effective reasoning about ordinary and extraordinary claims. New York: Oxford University Press.
Vesely, P., & Sherlock, J. (2005).  Pedagogical tools to develop critical thinking, Academic Exchange, 9(4), 155-161.
Vieira, F (1999). Pedagogy for autonomy: Teacher development and pedagogical experimentation – an in-service teacher training project. In S. Cotterall & D. Crabbe (Eds.) Learner autonomy in language learning: Defining the field and effecting change (pp. 153-162). Frankfurt am Main: Lang.
Wallwork, A. (2010). Discussions A-Z: A resource book of speaking activities. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Wenden, A. L. (2002). Learner development in language learning. Applied Linguistics, 23(1), 32-55.
Williams, R. L. (2005). Targeting critical thinking within teacher education: The potential impact on society. The Teacher Educator, 40(3), 163-187.
Wu, L. (2008). On cultivation of learner autonomy in the EFL classroom. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.
Zarei, A., & Gahremani, K. (2010). On the relationship between learner autonomy and reading comprehension. TELL, 3(10), 81-99.
Zhalehgooyan, B., & Alavi, S. M. (2014). Contribution of learner autonomy to listening comprehension problems of EFL learners. Frontiers of Language and Teaching, 5(1), 86-98.
Zhang, L. X., & Li, X. X. (2004). A comparative study on learner autonomy between Chinese students and west European students. Foreign Language World, 4, 15-23.
ZABANPAZHUHI (Journal of Language Research)
Volume 12, Issue 35 - Serial Number 15
August 2020
Pages 241-265
Files
Share
How to cite
Statistics